Unit 3 in 30 seconds: Ayurveda and Yoga
Ancient India gave the world two complete sciences of health — Ayurveda, the "science of life" and one of the Upavedas, and Yoga, the science of uniting body, mind and spirit. This unit covers the building blocks of Ayurveda (Pancha Mahabhuta, Triguna, Tridosha, Sapta-dhatu), its concept of disease and treatment, the daily and seasonal routines (Dinacharya and Ritucharya), the great classical texts, hospitals in ancient India, Ayurveda's modern global relevance, and Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga.
- Ayurveda = ayus (life) + veda (knowledge); Upaveda of the Atharvaveda; 8 branches (Ashtanga Ayurveda)
- Pancha Mahabhuta: Akasha, Vayu, Agni, Jala, Prithvi — each linked to a sense organ and specific qualities
- Tridosha: Vata (movement), Pitta (metabolism), Kapha (structure) — health is their balance
- Sapta-dhatu: Rasa → Rakta → Mamsa → Meda → Asthi → Majja → Shukra; Ojas = vital essence
- Disease = dosha imbalance (vikriti); 6 stages (shat kriyakala); treatment = shodhana (panchakarma) + shamana
- Dinacharya (brahma-muhurta, oil pulling, abhyanga, vyayama, meal timings) and Ritucharya (6 ritus)
- Brihat-trayi (Charak, Susruta, Ashtanga Hridaya) and Laghu-trayi; Ashokan hospitals; Jivaka
- Yoga: Patanjali's 8 limbs (Yama → Samadhi), Hatha yoga basics, karma/bhakti/jnana yoga in the Gita
1. Ayurveda: The Science of Life
Ayurveda = ayus (life, longevity) + veda (knowledge, science). It is the "science of life" — not merely a system of medicine, but a complete philosophy of healthy living that covers prevention of disease, cure of disease, and the well-being of body, mind and spirit together.
Ayurveda is counted among the four Upavedas (subsidiary Vedas) and is traditionally attached to the Atharvaveda, the Veda richest in hymns about healing, herbs and the treatment of disease. Its knowledge is said to have been revealed by Brahma, passed to Daksha Prajapati, then to the Ashwini Kumaras (the divine physicians), to Indra, and finally to the sages of the earth — Bharadwaja and Atreya — from whom two great schools arose: the Atreya school of physicians (kayachikitsa) and the Dhanvantari school of surgeons (shalya).
The twin aims of Ayurveda are captured in the famous verse: "Swasthasya swasthya rakshanam, aturasya vikara prashamanam" — to protect the health of the healthy person, and to cure the disease of the sick person. Prevention therefore comes first; cure comes second.
1.1 The Eight Branches — Ashtanga Ayurveda
Classical Ayurveda is divided into eight specialised branches, showing how advanced and organised ancient Indian medicine was:
| No. | Branch (Sanskrit name) | Subject |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Kaya — Kayachikitsa | General/internal medicine; kaya also means the digestive fire, the seat of most disease |
| 2 | Bala — Kaumarabhritya | Paediatrics; care of children, infants and mothers |
| 3 | Graha — Grahachikitsa (Bhuta-vidya) | Psychiatry; treatment of mental disorders and disorders of the mind |
| 4 | Urdhvanga — Shalakyatantra | Diseases "above the neck" — eye, ear, nose, throat and head (ENT and ophthalmology) |
| 5 | Shalya — Shalyatantra | Surgery; removal of foreign bodies, operations, wound care |
| 6 | Damstra — Damstratantra (Agadatantra) | Toxicology; treatment of poisons, snake-bites, insect stings |
| 7 | Jara — Rasayana | Geriatrics and rejuvenation; therapies for longevity and healthy ageing |
| 8 | Vrisha — Vajikarana | Reproductive health; aphrodisiac therapy and vitality |
Exam tip: The eight branches are a favourite short-note question. Memorise the sequence kaya – bala – graha – urdhvanga – shalya – damstra – jara – vrisha with one line on each branch's subject.
2. Triguna: The Three Qualities of Mind
Ayurveda holds that the mind, like the body, has a constitution made of three gunas (qualities) — the Triguna. Mental health depends on their balance, just as physical health depends on the balance of the doshas:
| Guna | Nature | Effect on the mind |
|---|---|---|
| Sattva | Purity, clarity, light, harmony | Calmness, wisdom, compassion, self-control; the ideal balanced state |
| Rajas | Activity, passion, restlessness | Ambition, desire, anger, restlessness; necessary for action but harmful in excess |
| Tamas | Inertia, darkness, heaviness | Laziness, ignorance, confusion, depression; the root of mental dullness |
Sattva is the state of mental health to be cultivated; Rajas and Tamas are the two manasika doshas (mental impurities) whose excess causes psychological disorders. This shows Ayurveda treated mental and physical health as one system — a remarkably modern idea.
3. Pancha Mahabhuta: The Five Great Elements
Pancha Mahabhuta = the five great elements — Akasha (space), Vayu (air), Agni (fire), Jala (water) and Prithvi (earth). Ayurveda teaches that the entire universe, including the human body, is composed of these five elements in different proportions.
Each element is linked to one sense organ (jnanendriya) through its subtle essence (tanmatra), and each carries characteristic qualities:
| Element | Sense organ / Tanmatra | Key qualities |
|---|---|---|
| Akasha (space) | Ear / shabda (sound) | Soft, light, subtle, porous — gives cavities and channels in the body |
| Vayu (air) | Skin / sparsha (touch) | Light, dry, rough, mobile — gives all movement |
| Agni (fire) | Eye / rupa (sight) | Hot, sharp, subtle — gives digestion, heat and transformation |
| Jala (water) | Tongue / rasa (taste) | Liquid, soft, cool, heavy — gives fluids and cohesion |
| Prithvi (earth) | Nose / gandha (smell) | Heavy, hard, stable — gives solid structure like bones and muscles |
Why this matters: the three doshas are themselves combinations of these elements — Vata is Vayu + Akasha, Pitta is Agni + Jala, Kapha is Jala + Prithvi. So the entire physiology of Ayurveda is built on the Pancha Mahabhuta foundation.
Exam tip: Examiners love asking "which sense organ belongs to which element?" — learn the pairs: space–ear–sound, air–skin–touch, fire–eye–sight, water–tongue–taste, earth–nose–smell.
4. Tridosha: Vata, Pitta and Kapha
Tridosha = the three bio-energies — Vata, Pitta and Kapha — that govern every physiological function of the body. Health is the state of their balance; disease is the state of their imbalance. Every person's constitution (prakriti) is fixed at birth by the unique proportion of these three doshas.
| Dosha | Elements | Principle and functions | Signs of aggravation | How to balance |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vata | Vayu + Akasha | Movement — nerve impulses, circulation, respiration, speech, excretion, blinking | Dry skin and hair, constipation, insomnia, anxiety, joint pain, tremors | Warm, oily, heavy foods; regular routine; oil massage; adequate rest |
| Pitta | Agni + Jala | Metabolism/transformation — digestion, body heat, vision, intellect, skin lustre | Acidity, inflammation, skin rashes, anger, irritability, excess hunger and thirst | Cooling, sweet and bitter foods; avoid heat, spicy food and alcohol |
| Kapha | Jala + Prithvi | Structure/cohesion — lubrication of joints, immunity, growth, stability, strength | Heaviness, nasal congestion, weight gain, lethargy, excessive sleep | Light, dry, warm foods; regular exercise; avoid heavy, oily, sweet foods and day-sleep |
Notice the logic: each dosha is increased by things similar to it and decreased by things opposite to it. Vata (cold, dry, light, mobile) is calmed by warmth, oil and heaviness; Pitta (hot, sharp) is calmed by cooling and sweetness; Kapha (heavy, cold, moist) is calmed by lightness, dryness and warmth. This "like increases like, opposites balance" rule is the practical heart of Ayurvedic treatment.
Exam tip: Always write the dosha–element pairs first (Vata = air + space, Pitta = fire + water, Kapha = water + earth), then functions, then aggravation signs. This order earns full marks.
5. Sapta-dhatu: The Seven Tissues and Ojas
The body is built and nourished in a fixed sequence of seven tissues — the Sapta-dhatu. Food, after digestion, nourishes each dhatu in order, like milk turning step by step into curd (ksheera-dadhi nyaya):
| No. | Dhatu | Meaning | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Rasa | Plasma / lymph | Circulates nutrients; nourishes the whole body |
| 2 | Rakta | Blood | Carries oxygen; gives vitality and colour |
| 3 | Mamsa | Muscle | Movement, strength and body form |
| 4 | Meda | Fat / adipose tissue | Lubrication, insulation, energy reserve |
| 5 | Asthi | Bone | Support and structure of the body |
| 6 | Majja | Marrow / nervous tissue | Fills the bones; nourishes nerves and brain |
| 7 | Shukra | Reproductive tissue | Reproduction; the finest physical tissue |
Ojas is the finest essence of all seven dhatus — the seat of immunity, vitality and radiance. Strong ojas means strong resistance to disease; depleted ojas means weakness and proneness to illness. Rasayana (rejuvenation) therapy aims precisely at building ojas.
6. The Ayurvedic Concept of Disease
6.1 What is health?
Susruta's famous definition: a person is healthy (swastha) when the doshas, dhatus and malas (waste products) are in equilibrium, the digestive fire (agni) works properly, and the soul, senses and mind are content and cheerful. Health is therefore not merely "absence of disease" — it is a positive state of balance and happiness. Modern WHO's definition of health as "complete physical, mental and social well-being" echoes this ancient idea.
6.2 Prakriti and Vikriti
Prakriti is the inborn constitution — the fixed proportion of Vata, Pitta and Kapha decided at conception. It never changes through life and determines a person's natural tendencies. Vikriti is the current, disturbed state — the dosha imbalance that has actually occurred. Diagnosis means comparing the patient's vikriti with their prakriti; treatment means bringing the vikriti back toward the prakriti.
6.3 Nidana — the causes of disease
Ayurveda lists three root causes of all disease:
- Asatmya-indriyartha-samyoga — improper contact of the senses with their objects: excess use (atiyoga), deficient use (ayoga) or wrong use (mithyayoga) of the senses, e.g. staring too long at screens, eating too much or too little.
- Prajnaparadha — "crime against wisdom": knowingly doing what is wrong — eating junk food knowing it is harmful, suppressing natural urges, following bad habits.
- Parinama (Kala) — the effect of time: seasonal changes, ageing and natural cycles that disturb the doshas.
6.4 Shat Kriyakala — the six stages of disease
A unique contribution of Ayurveda is describing disease as a process in six stages, not a sudden event. Treatment is easiest in the early stages:
| Stage | Name | What happens |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Sanchaya | Accumulation of the dosha at its own site |
| 2 | Prakopa | Aggravation — the dosha becomes excited but stays in place |
| 3 | Prasara | Spreading — the dosha overflows and moves through the body |
| 4 | Sthana-samshraya | Localisation — the dosha settles in a weak tissue and disturbs it |
| 5 | Vyakti | Manifestation — clear symptoms of the disease appear |
| 6 | Bheda | Differentiation — chronic stage with complications |
6.5 Principles of treatment
- Nidana-parivarjana — first remove the cause; without this no treatment works.
- Shodhana (purification) — the famous Panchakarma, five cleansing therapies: Vamana (therapeutic emesis), Virechana (therapeutic purgation), Basti (medicated enema), Nasya (nasal therapy) and Raktamokshana (bloodletting). Used when doshas are deeply aggravated.
- Shamana (palliation) — pacifying the doshas with herbs, proper diet (pathya) and lifestyle correction. Used for mild imbalance.
Exam tip: A 20-mark answer on "concept of disease" should cover all five parts: definition of health, prakriti–vikriti, nidana (3 causes), shat kriyakala (6 stages) and treatment (shodhana + shamana).
7. Dinacharya: The Daily Routine
Dinacharya = the ideal daily routine. Ayurveda believes most lifestyle diseases can be prevented simply by living each day in tune with nature's rhythms.
- Brahma-muhurta — wake up about one and a half hours before sunrise (around 4–5 am), when Vata is dominant and the mind is naturally calm and clear; the best time for study and meditation.
- Evacuation and cleansing — attend to natural urges without suppression; clean the teeth with herbal twigs (danta-dhavana, e.g. neem); scrape the tongue (jihva-nirlekhana) to remove toxins.
- Oil pulling (gandusha/kavala) — hold sesame or coconut oil in the mouth; strengthens teeth, gums and jaw, and removes oral toxins.
- Abhyanga — daily self-massage with warm oil; nourishes tissues, improves circulation, calms Vata, promotes sound sleep.
- Vyayama — exercise up to half of one's capacity (ardha-shakti); builds strength and kindles the digestive fire, but over-exercise is forbidden.
- Snana — bath after exercise; removes sweat and refreshes the body and mind.
- Meal timings — eat only when the previous meal is digested and true hunger appears; lunch should be the heaviest meal, taken at midday when the digestive fire (agni) is strongest.
- Sleep — sleep early at night; avoid sleeping during the day (except in the hot summer season), as day-sleep aggravates Kapha.
8. Ritucharya: The Seasonal Routine
The year is divided into two halves: Adana kala (Shishira, Vasanta, Grishma — the sun "takes away" strength; debilitating period) and Visarga kala (Varsha, Sharad, Hemanta — the moon "gives" strength; nourishing period). Diet and lifestyle must change with each of the six ritus (seasons):
| Ritu (season) | Period | Dosha effect | Do | Don't |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shishira (late winter) | Jan–Mar | Kapha accumulates | Warm, heavy, nourishing food; oil massage | Cold wind, cold and light foods, fasting |
| Vasanta (spring) | Mar–May | Kapha aggravates | Light, dry, warm food; honey; exercise; vamana therapy | Heavy, oily, sweet-sour foods; day-sleep |
| Grishma (summer) | May–Jul | Vata aggravates, Pitta rises | Sweet, cooling, liquid foods; rest in cool places | Pungent/sour/salty food, alcohol, midday sun, strenuous exercise |
| Varsha (monsoon) | Jul–Sep | Vata aggravates; digestion weak | Old grains, sour-salty soups, boiled water; basti therapy | Day-sleep, river water, strenuous exercise |
| Sharad (autumn) | Sep–Nov | Pitta aggravates | Sweet, bitter, cooling foods; moonlight; virechana therapy | Pungent/sour/salty food, curd, harsh sunlight |
| Hemanta (early winter) | Nov–Jan | Strength at maximum | Heavy, oily, sweet/sour/salty foods; oil massage; exercise | Cold exposure, fasting, light and dry foods |
Exam tip: In the Ritucharya table, examiners check two things: which dosha is disturbed in each season, and one correct do and don't. The pairs Vasanta–Kapha, Grishma–Vata, Varsha–Vata, Sharad–Pitta are the most asked.
9. Important Ayurvedic Texts
9.1 Brihat-trayi — the Great Trio
| Text | Author / tradition | Main subject |
|---|---|---|
| Charak Samhita | Originally the Agnivesha Tantra; redacted by Charaka, completed by Dridhabala; in dialogue form between sage Atreya and Agnivesha | Kayachikitsa (general medicine); the foremost text of Ayurvedic internal medicine |
| Susruta Samhita | Susruta, disciple of Dhanvantari (Dhanvantari school) | Shalyatantra (surgery); describes surgical instruments, operations, rhinoplasty (nose reconstruction) and cataract couching — Susruta is called the "father of surgery" |
| Ashtanga Hridaya | Vagbhata | A concise, poetic compendium covering all eight branches of Ayurveda in one text |
9.2 Laghu-trayi — the Lesser Trio
| Text | Author | Main subject |
|---|---|---|
| Madhava Nidana | Madhava (Madhavakara) | Nidana — diagnosis; causes and symptoms of diseases |
| Sharangadhara Samhita | Sharangadhara | Pharmacy — drug formulations, dosage forms and preparation methods |
| Bhava Prakasha | Bhava Mishra | Materia medica — medicinal plants, including newer drugs and newly described diseases |
Exam tip: Map each text to its branch in one line: Charak → kayachikitsa, Susruta → shalya (surgery), Ashtanga Hridaya → all eight branches (Vagbhata), Madhava Nidana → diagnosis, Sharangadhara → pharmacy, Bhava Prakasha → medicinal plants. This one-line mapping is exactly what examiners want.
10. Hospitals in Ancient India
Ancient India had one of the world's earliest organised systems of public healthcare — not just individual physicians, but state-run hospitals:
- Ashokan hospitals (3rd century BCE): Emperor Ashoka's Major Rock Edict II records that he established hospitals (chikitsalayas) for both humans and animals throughout his empire and beyond. Medicinal herbs — imported where they did not grow locally — were planted along roads, wells were dug, and trees planted for travellers. This is the earliest known state-run public health programme in history.
- Jivaka — the great physician: Jivaka was the royal physician of King Bimbisara of Magadha and personal physician of the Buddha. Trained at Takshashila, he was famed for astonishing cures, including complex surgeries — proof that ancient India produced master clinicians, not just theorists.
- Kautilya's Arthashastra: this treatise on statecraft lists physicians (chikitsaka) among state functionaries, provides for medical stores, and requires surgeons with instruments and medicines to accompany the army. Veterinary care for elephants and horses was also a state responsibility — showing medicine was an organised arm of the administration.
- Centres of learning: the ancient universities of Takshashila and Nalanda taught Ayurveda systematically — students learned theory and trained in practical observation, much like modern medical colleges.
Why this matters: hospitals for humans and animals under Ashoka, state physicians under Kautilya, and clinical training at Takshashila together prove that healthcare in ancient India was a public, institutional system — centuries before such systems appeared elsewhere in the world.
11. Ayurveda: India's Gift to the Modern World
- WHO recognition: the World Health Organization's Traditional Medicine Strategy recognises Ayurveda as a major traditional system; the WHO Global Centre for Traditional Medicine was established at Jamnagar, Gujarat (2022), and the ICD-11 (global disease classification) now includes a traditional medicine module covering Ayurveda.
- Victory against biopiracy: in 1995 a US patent was granted for the wound-healing use of turmeric (haldi); India's CSIR challenged it with evidence from ancient Sanskrit texts, and the patent was revoked in 1997. Similarly, a European patent on neem was revoked in 2000. These landmark cases proved the prior art of Indian knowledge and led to the creation of the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL), which documents India's medicinal knowledge to prevent future patent theft.
- Global wellness industry: Ayurvedic spas, panchakarma centres, yoga-ayurveda tourism (especially Kerala) and herbal products are now a multi-billion-dollar global industry — with India as its natural home.
- Integrative medicine: modern hospitals increasingly combine Ayurvedic lifestyle guidance, diet and herbal support with modern treatment — especially for lifestyle diseases like diabetes, hypertension and stress disorders, where prevention-based Ayurveda complements modern medicine.
- Institutional support: the Ministry of AYUSH (2014) and the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India give Ayurvedic drugs official standards and global credibility.
Exam tip: The turmeric patent case (1995 grant → 1997 revocation after CSIR's challenge) is the single most quotable example of "Ayurveda's relevance today". Pair it with the WHO Jamnagar centre for a strong 20-mark answer.
12. Yoga: The Science of Union
Yoga comes from the Sanskrit root "yuj" — to unite, to join. It is the science of uniting the individual self (atman) with the universal consciousness, and in practical terms, the union and harmony of body, mind and spirit. Patanjali defines it as "Yogash chitta-vritti-nirodhah" — yoga is the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind.
12.1 Patanjali's Yoga Sutras
The foundational text of classical yoga is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (around 2nd century BCE) — 196 sutras (aphorisms) arranged in four chapters (padas): Samadhi Pada (on concentration), Sadhana Pada (on practice), Vibhuti Pada (on powers) and Kaivalya Pada (on liberation). This is the text that systematised yoga as Ashtanga Yoga — the eight-limbed path.
12.2 Ashtanga Yoga — the eight limbs
| No. | Limb | Meaning and content |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Yama | Five social restraints: ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (moderation/celibacy), aparigraha (non-possessiveness) |
| 2 | Niyama | Five personal observances: shaucha (purity), santosha (contentment), tapas (austerity), svadhyaya (self-study), ishvara-pranidhana (surrender to God) |
| 3 | Asana | Steady, comfortable posture — "sthira-sukham-asanam"; prepares the body to sit still for meditation |
| 4 | Pranayama | Regulation of breath — inhalation (puraka), exhalation (rechaka) and retention (kumbhaka); controls the life-force (prana) |
| 5 | Pratyahara | Withdrawal of the senses from external objects; turning attention inward |
| 6 | Dharana | Concentration — fixing the mind on a single point or object |
| 7 | Dhyana | Meditation — sustained, unbroken flow of concentration |
| 8 | Samadhi | Absorption — complete union; the meditator merges with the object of meditation |
The first five limbs are bahiranga (the outer discipline — ethical and bodily preparation); the last three — dharana, dhyana, samadhi — are antaranga (the inner discipline of the mind). Yoga is thus a complete ladder from social ethics to the highest spiritual absorption.
12.3 Hatha yoga — the basics
Hatha = "ha" (sun) + "tha" (moon): the yoga of balancing the solar and lunar energies of the body. Its classical text is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika of Svatmarama (around 15th century CE). Hatha yoga works through the body to reach the mind, using:
- Shatkarma — six cleansing practices: dhauti, basti, neti, trataka, nauli and kapalabhati
- Asana — postures for strength and flexibility
- Pranayama — breath control
- Mudra and bandha — seals and locks that direct prana upward
Hatha yoga is often called the preparation for Raja yoga (Patanjali's path): it purifies and strengthens the body so that meditation becomes possible.
12.4 Yoga in the Bhagavad Gita
The Gita presents yoga not as mere physical exercise but as three great paths to liberation, suited to different temperaments:
- Karma yoga — the yoga of selfless action: performing one's duty without attachment to results ("yogah karmasu kaushalam" — yoga is excellence in action; "samatvam yoga uchyate" — equanimity is called yoga).
- Bhakti yoga — the yoga of devotion: complete loving surrender to God.
- Jnana yoga — the yoga of knowledge: realising the true nature of the self through discrimination and wisdom.
Modern relevance: on India's proposal, the United Nations adopted 21 June as the International Day of Yoga (2014), celebrated worldwide ever since — making yoga one of India's greatest cultural gifts to humanity, alongside Ayurveda.
Key Points — Unit 3
- Ayurveda = ayus + veda = "science of life"; an Upaveda of the Atharvaveda; twin aims — protect the healthy, cure the sick.
- Ashtanga Ayurveda (8 branches): kaya, bala, graha, urdhvanga, shalya, damstra, jara, vrisha.
- Triguna (mental): Sattva (purity), Rajas (activity), Tamas (inertia); Rajas and Tamas are the mental doshas.
- Pancha Mahabhuta: Akasha–ear–sound, Vayu–skin–touch, Agni–eye–sight, Jala–tongue–taste, Prithvi–nose–smell.
- Tridosha: Vata (Vayu+Akasha, movement), Pitta (Agni+Jala, metabolism), Kapha (Jala+Prithvi, structure).
- Sapta-dhatu in order: Rasa → Rakta → Mamsa → Meda → Asthi → Majja → Shukra; Ojas = essence of all, seat of immunity.
- Health (Susruta): balance of dosha–dhatu–mala + proper agni + contented soul, senses and mind.
- Prakriti = inborn constitution; Vikriti = current imbalance; treatment restores prakriti.
- Nidana (3 causes): improper sense contact, prajnaparadha, parinama (time/season).
- Shat kriyakala (6 stages): sanchaya → prakopa → prasara → sthana-samshraya → vyakti → bheda.
- Treatment: nidana-parivarjana; shodhana = Panchakarma (vamana, virechana, basti, nasya, raktamokshana); shamana = pacification.
- Dinacharya: brahma-muhurta waking, danta-dhavana, tongue scraping, oil pulling, abhyanga, vyayama (half capacity), midday main meal, early sleep.
- Ritucharya: 6 ritus — Shishira, Vasanta, Grishma, Varsha, Sharad, Hemanta; Adana kala (debilitating) vs Visarga kala (nourishing).
- Brihat-trayi: Charak Samhita (Charaka — kayachikitsa), Susruta Samhita (Susruta — surgery, "father of surgery"), Ashtanga Hridaya (Vagbhata — all 8 branches).
- Laghu-trayi: Madhava Nidana (diagnosis), Sharangadhara Samhita (pharmacy), Bhava Prakasha (materia medica).
- Ancient hospitals: Ashoka's Rock Edict II (hospitals for humans and animals); Jivaka (physician of Bimbisara and the Buddha, trained at Takshashila); Arthashastra's state physicians.
- Modern gift: WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy + Jamnagar centre (2022); turmeric patent revoked 1997; neem patent revoked 2000; TKDL; Ministry of AYUSH.
- Yoga = "yuj" (to unite); Patanjali's Yoga Sutras — 196 sutras, 4 padas; "yogash chitta-vritti-nirodhah".
- Ashtanga Yoga: Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi; bahiranga (outer 5) + antaranga (inner 3).
- Hatha yoga: Hatha Yoga Pradipika (Svatmarama); shatkarma, asana, pranayama, mudra, bandha.
- Gita's three yogas: karma (selfless action), bhakti (devotion), jnana (knowledge); International Day of Yoga — 21 June.