Unit 2 in 30 seconds: This unit has two halves. First: the Vedic corpus — the 4 Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda), each with 4 layers (Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, Upanishad), the 6 Vedangas (limbs of the Veda), distinctive features of Vedic life, and India's 9 schools of philosophy (6 astika + 3 nastika). Second: the Bhagavad Gita — its setting on the Kurukshetra battlefield, the doctrine of nishkama karma (2.47–50), the sthitaprajna (2.70), the guru–shishya path to knowledge (4.34), moderation (6.16–17), daivi vs asuri sampad (16.1–5), and the three gunas of food (17.8–10). The 16 prescribed slokas must be memorized with meaning — they are directly asked in the exam.
1. The Vedic Corpus — What "Veda" Means
Veda (from the root vid, "to know") means "sacred knowledge". The Vedas are the oldest texts of India, composed roughly between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE, and are regarded in tradition as apaurusheya (not of human authorship) and shruti ("that which is heard" — revealed, as opposed to smriti, "that which is remembered").
Key points about the Vedic corpus:
- The Vedas were transmitted orally for centuries before being written down — memorization techniques (pathas) preserved them word-for-word.
- The language is Vedic Sanskrit, older than Classical Sanskrit.
- The core religion of the Vedas is centred on yajna (sacrifice) offered to deities like Agni, Indra, Varuna, Surya and Usha.
- Rigveda is the oldest; the Upanishads (the last layer) mark the shift from ritual to philosophy.
Exam Tip: Questions often ask you to distinguish shruti vs smriti. Shruti = Vedas + Upanishads (revealed, highest authority); Smriti = everything "remembered" — epics, Puranas, Dharmashastras (secondary authority).
2. The Four Vedas
| Veda | Meaning | Content & Features | Chief Priest |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rigveda | "Veda of praise/verses" | Oldest text of India; 1028 suktas (hymns) in 10 mandalas (books); hymns praise deities like Indra, Agni, Varuna; contains the Gayatri Mantra (3.62.10, composed by Vishvamitra) and the Purusha Sukta (10.90, source of varna theory) | Hotri (invoker) |
| Samaveda | "Veda of melodies" | Verses (mostly borrowed from Rigveda) set to music for chanting during sacrifice; foundation of Indian classical music; smallest Veda in unique content | Udgatri (chanter) |
| Yajurveda | "Veda of sacrificial formulas" | Prose mantras giving ritual instructions; two recensions — Shukla (White) Yajurveda (Vajasaneyi Samhita, associated with Yajnavalkya; "pure"/systematic) and Krishna (Black) Yajurveda (Taittiriya, Maitrayani, Katha; mantras mixed with Brahmana commentary) | Adhvaryu (performer) |
| Atharvaveda | "Veda of Atharvan (priest)" | Concerns daily life: medicine (Ayurveda's root), healing charms, household rites, spells against disease and enemies; 20 kandas; traditionally not used in the solemn shrauta sacrifice | Brahma (supervisor) |
Exam Tip: Memorize the priest–Veda pairs: Hotri–Rig, Udgatri–Sama, Adhvaryu–Yajur, Brahma–Atharva. A favourite one-mark/short question: "Which Veda is called the Veda of music?" — Samaveda.
3. The Four Layers of Each Veda
Every Veda is traditionally divided into four parts, reflecting a movement from ritual to reflection:
| Layer | Meaning | Content |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Samhita | "Collection" | The mantras/hymns themselves — the core text chanted in ritual |
| 2. Brahmana | "Explanations" | Prose commentaries explaining the meaning and procedure of rituals (e.g., Shatapatha Brahmana — the largest) |
| 3. Aranyaka | "Forest books" | Meditative, symbolic interpretation of rituals for hermits in the forest — the bridge between ritual and philosophy |
| 4. Upanishad | "Sitting near (the teacher)" | Philosophical dialogues on Brahman, Atman and moksha; called Vedanta ("end of the Veda"); principal ones include Isha, Kena, Katha, Mundaka, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka |
Upanishads = the philosophical crown of the Vedic corpus. Their central teaching is the identity of Atman (individual self) and Brahman (ultimate reality) — summed up in mahavakyas like Tat Tvam Asi ("Thou art That", Chandogya) and Aham Brahmasmi ("I am Brahman", Brihadaranyaka).
4. The Six Vedangas — "Limbs of the Veda"
The Vedangas are auxiliary sciences developed to preserve, pronounce, interpret and apply the Vedas correctly:
| Vedanga | Field | Key Text / Author | Purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shiksha | Phonetics & pronunciation | Panini's Shiksha | Correct pronunciation, accent and articulation of mantras (a mispronounced mantra was believed to fail) |
| Kalpa | Ritual procedure | Shrauta, Grihya and Dharma Sutras | Step-by-step rules for performing sacrifices and domestic rites; Dharma Sutras are the seed of later law books |
| Vyakaran | Grammar | Panini's Ashtadhyayi (~400 BCE; ~4000 sutras) | Analysis of words — the most scientific grammar of the ancient world |
| Nirukta | Etymology | Yaska's Nirukta | Explanation of the meaning/origin of Vedic words |
| Chandas | Meter/prosody | Pingala's Chhandashastra | Science of poetic meters (e.g., Gayatri = 24 syllables) |
| Jyotisha | Astronomy/astrology | Lagadha's Vedanga Jyotisha | Fixing the correct time for rituals (calendar science) |
Memory hook: "Shi-Ka-Vya-Ni-Chha-Jyo" — Shiksha (speak it right), Kalpa (do it right), Vyakaran (word it right), Nirukta (mean it right), Chandas (meter it right), Jyotisha (time it right).
5. Distinctive Features of Vedic Life
5.1 Yajna — the Centre of Religious Life
The yajna (sacrifice) was the heart of Vedic religion: offerings of ghee, grain and soma were poured into the sacred fire (Agni, the messenger between gods and men) while mantras were chanted. Great public sacrifices like the Rajasuya (royal consecration) and Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) also asserted the king's authority.
5.2 Rta and Dharma — Cosmic and Moral Order
Rta is the Vedic concept of cosmic order — the regularity of nature (sunrise, seasons, rivers) upheld by the gods, especially Varuna. Living in harmony with rta is dharma (right conduct). Rta is the philosophical ancestor of the later idea of dharma.
5.3 Social Organisation: Varna and Ashrama
- Varna: the fourfold social division — Brahmana (priests/teachers), Kshatriya (warriors/rulers), Vaishya (traders/farmers), Shudra (servants). Its earliest mention is the Purusha Sukta (Rigveda 10.90). In the early Vedic period it was more fluid and occupation-based than the rigid caste of later times.
- Ashrama: the four stages of life — Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest-dweller), Sannyasa (renunciate). This scheme was systematized in the later Vedic/Dharmashastra period.
- Political life included popular assemblies — the Sabha (council of elders) and Samiti (general assembly) — which checked the power of the Rajan (king).
5.4 Gurukul Education
Education was oral and residential: the student (brahmacharin) lived with the teacher (guru) in a gurukul, serving him while memorizing the Vedas. Learning began with the upanayana (sacred-thread ceremony). Knowledge passed from guru to shishya in an unbroken lineage (parampara) — the model the Gita itself invokes (4.34).
5.5 Position of Women
- Early Vedic society gave women honourable status: they participated in yajnas, assemblies and philosophical debate.
- Women composed Rigvedic hymns — Lopamudra, Ghosha, Apala, Vishvavara are named rishikas.
- Gargi Vachaknavi debated the sage Yajnavalkya on the nature of Brahman in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad; Maitreyi chose the knowledge of the Self over wealth.
- Girls could undergo upanayana and study the Vedas in the early period; restrictions hardened in the later Vedic age.
Exam Tip: "Discuss the position of women in Vedic society" is a classic 20-mark question. Structure: honourable early status → evidence (rishikas, Gargi, Maitreyi, upanayana) → decline in the later Vedic period. Always name Gargi and Maitreyi.
6. Indian Schools of Philosophy (Darshana)
Darshana literally means "seeing" — a philosophical "viewpoint". Indian schools are classified by their attitude to the Veda:
| Group | Meaning | Schools |
|---|---|---|
| Astika | "There is" — accept the authority of the Veda | The six darshanas: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta |
| Nastika | "There is not" — reject Vedic authority | Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka (Lokayata) |
6.1 The Six Astika Darshanas
| School | Founder / Text | Core Teaching |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Nyaya | Gautama (Akshapada); Nyaya Sutra | Logic and epistemology; valid knowledge through 4 pramanas — pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), upamana (comparison), shabda (testimony); 16 categories (padarthas) of debate |
| 2. Vaisheshika | Kanada (Uluka); Vaisheshika Sutra | Atomism — the world is built of eternal atoms (paramanu); classifies reality into padarthas: dravya (substance), guna (quality), karma (action), samanya (generality), vishesha (particularity), samavaya (inherence) |
| 3. Samkhya | Kapila; Samkhya Karika (Ishvarakrishna) | Dualism of Purusha (consciousness, many) and Prakriti (matter); 25 tattvas; theory of satkaryavada (effect pre-exists in cause); three gunas — sattva, rajas, tamas |
| 4. Yoga | Patanjali; Yoga Sutra | Chitta-vritti-nirodha — "yoga is the stilling of the mind's fluctuations"; the practical path of Ashtanga Yoga (eight limbs): yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, samadhi |
| 5. Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa) | Jaimini; Mimamsa Sutra; later Kumarila Bhatta, Prabhakara | Interpretation of Vedic ritual; dharma = what the Veda commands; defends the karma-kanda (ritual portion); shabda (Vedic word) is the supreme pramana |
| 6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) | Badarayana (Vyasa); Brahma Sutra | Philosophy of the Upanishads (jnana-kanda); centres on Brahman and Atman; three great sub-schools — Advaita (Shankara: non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja: qualified non-dualism), Dvaita (Madhva: dualism) |
Memory hook: "Nyaya–Vaisheshika argue, Samkhya–Yoga practice, Mimamsa–Vedanta interpret." Nyaya+Vaisheshika are sister schools (logic + physics), Samkhya+Yoga are sister schools (theory + practice), Mimamsa+Vedanta are sister schools (earlier + later Veda).
6.2 The Three Nastika Schools
- Buddhism (Gautama Buddha, 6th century BCE): Four Noble Truths (suffering, its cause, its cessation, the path), the Eightfold Path, pratitya-samutpada (dependent origination), anatman (no permanent self), and the Middle Path between indulgence and severe asceticism.
- Jainism (Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara): Triratna — right faith, right knowledge, right conduct; extreme ahimsa (non-violence); anekantavada (many-sidedness of truth) and syadvada (qualified assertion).
- Charvaka / Lokayata (attributed to Brihaspati): materialism — only perception (pratyaksha) is a valid pramana; denies soul, God and afterlife; "eat, drink and be merry" ethics. Called Lokayata ("the people's philosophy").
Exam one-liner: Astika = accepts Veda (6 schools); Nastika = rejects Veda (Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka). Note that Buddhism and Jainism are nastika in the technical Indian sense (they reject Vedic authority) even though they are religions in their own right.
7. The Bhagavad Gita — Introduction
The Bhagavad Gita ("Song of the Lord") is a 700-verse dialogue in 18 chapters, set in the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata. On the battlefield of Kurukshetra, the warrior Arjuna is overcome with grief and moral confusion (vishada) at the prospect of fighting his own teachers and kinsmen. His charioteer, Shri Krishna, counsels him — and that counsel is the Gita.
- Chapter 1 (Arjuna Vishada Yoga) states the problem; Chapters 2–18 give the teaching.
- The Gita synthesizes the three yogas: Karma Yoga (path of selfless action, Ch. 2–6), Bhakti Yoga (path of devotion, Ch. 7–12), Jnana Yoga (path of knowledge, Ch. 13–18).
- Its central message: do your duty without attachment to results — action itself, done in the right spirit, becomes liberation.
Exam Tip: Any answer on the Gita should open with the setting (Kurukshetra, Arjuna's vishada, Krishna as charioteer-counsellor) and the structure (18 chapters, 700 verses, three yogas). Examiners reward the sloka quoted in Devanagari with correct chapter–verse number.
8. Karma Yoga — Chapter II, Slokas 47–50
These four verses are the heart of Karma Yoga — the Gita's answer to Arjuna's dilemma: "How can I fight without incurring sin?"
Sloka 2.47 — Nishkama Karma
कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन।
मा कर्मफलहेतुर्भूर्मा ते सङ्गोऽस्त्वकर्मणि॥
Meaning: "You have a right to your actions, but never to their fruits. Never consider yourself the cause of the results of your actions, and never be attached to inaction."
Exam significance: The doctrine of nishkama karma — act because it is your duty, surrendering anxiety about success or failure; this single verse is the Gita's most quoted teaching on work ethics.
Sloka 2.48 — Equanimity is Yoga
योगस्थः कुरु कर्माणि सङ्गं त्यक्त्वा धनञ्जय।
सिद्ध्यसिद्ध्योः समो भूत्वा समत्वं योग उच्यते॥
Meaning: "Established in yoga, O Dhananjaya, perform your actions abandoning attachment; remaining even-minded in success and failure — evenness of mind is called yoga."
Exam significance: Defines yoga not as postures but as samattva (equanimity); the practical test of karma yoga is remaining balanced in victory and defeat.
Sloka 2.49 — The Wisdom of Buddhi-Yoga
दूरेण ह्यवरं कर्म बुद्धियोगाद्धनञ्जय।
बुद्धौ शरणमन्विच्छ कृपणाः फलहेतवः॥
Meaning: "Action (done with selfish motive) is far inferior to the yoga of wisdom, O Dhananjaya. Take refuge in wisdom (buddhi); miserable are those driven by desire for fruits."
Exam significance: Contrasts selfish action vs wisdom-guided action; those who work only for rewards are called kripana (miserly) — a strong ethical condemnation of greed-driven work.
Sloka 2.50 — Excellence in Action
बुद्धियुक्तो जहातीह उभे सुकृतदुष्कृते।
तस्माद्योगाय युज्यस्व योगः कर्मसु कौशलम्॥
Meaning: "One endowed with wisdom casts off, in this very life, both good and evil deeds. Therefore devote yourself to yoga — yoga is excellence in action."
Exam significance: "योगः कर्मसु कौशलम्" is the Gita's famous definition of yoga as skill/efficiency in action — the verse most often asked for explanation in exams.
9. The Sthitaprajna — Chapter II, Sloka 70
After defining karma yoga, Krishna describes the sthitaprajna — the person of steady wisdom (2.54–72). Sloka 70 gives its most beautiful image:
आपूर्यमाणमचलप्रतिष्ठं समुद्रमापः प्रविशन्ति यद्वत्।
तद्वत्कामा यं प्रविशन्ति सर्वे स शान्तिमाप्नोति न कामकामी॥
Meaning: "As the waters of rivers enter the full, unmoving ocean without disturbing it, so do all desires enter the sage — he attains peace, not the desirer of desires."
Exam significance: The ocean simile: the wise mind receives every experience (pleasure, pain, praise, insult) yet remains undisturbed, like the sea receiving rivers. Peace comes not from fulfilling desires but from being unmoved by them — the psychological core of sthitaprajna.
Exam Tip: If asked "Explain the characteristics of a sthitaprajna", quote 2.70 (ocean simile), then add 2.48 (equanimity) and the definition from 2.55–56: one who has renounced all desires and remains satisfied in the Self.
10. The Guru–Shishya Tradition — Chapter IV, Sloka 34
Chapter 4 (Jnana Yoga) teaches that knowledge of the Self liberates — but such knowledge must be received from a teacher in the right spirit:
तद्विद्धि प्रणिपातेन परिप्रश्नेन सेवया।
उपदेक्ष्यन्ति ते ज्ञानं ज्ञानिनस्तत्त्वदर्शिनः॥
Meaning: "Learn that (knowledge) by prostration (humility), by inquiry, and by service. The wise, who have seen the truth, will impart that knowledge to you."
Exam significance: The threefold discipline of learning — pranipata (humility), pariprashna (questioning), seva (service) — the classical Indian model of education, echoing the gurukul tradition; knowledge is not merely read, it is received from the tattvadarshi (seer of truth).
11. Moderation — Chapter VI, Slokas 16–17
Chapter 6 (Dhyana Yoga) teaches meditation — and warns that yoga is impossible for those who live in extremes:
Sloka 6.16 — Neither Excess nor Starvation
नात्यश्नतस्तु योगोऽस्ति न चैकान्तमनश्नतः।
न चाति स्वप्नशीलस्य जाग्रतो नैव चार्जुन॥
Meaning: "Yoga is not for one who eats too much, nor for one who eats nothing at all; not for one who sleeps too much, nor for one who stays ever awake, O Arjuna."
Exam significance: The Gita rejects both indulgence and extreme asceticism — spiritual life requires a balanced body, anticipating the "middle path" principle.
Sloka 6.17 — Yoga Destroys Sorrow
युक्ताहारविहारस्य युक्तचेष्टस्य कर्मसु।
युक्तस्वप्नावबोधस्य योगो भवति दुःखहा॥
Meaning: "For one whose eating and recreation are balanced, whose efforts in action are balanced, and whose sleep and waking are balanced — for him yoga becomes the destroyer of sorrow."
Exam significance: "योगो भवति दुःखहा" — moderation (yukta) in all four areas (food, recreation, work, sleep) is the cause; freedom from suffering is the result. A complete lifestyle formula in one verse.
12. Daivi and Asuri Sampad — Chapter XVI, Slokas 1–5
Chapter 16 (Daivasura Sampad Vibhaga Yoga) classifies human nature into two endowments (sampad): the divine (leading to liberation) and the demonic (leading to bondage).
Sloka 16.1 — The Divine Qualities Begin
अभयं सत्त्वसंशुद्धिर्ज्ञानयोगव्यवस्थितिः।
दानं दमश्च यज्ञश्च स्वाध्यायस्तप आर्जवम्॥
Meaning: "Fearlessness, purity of heart, steadfastness in knowledge and yoga, charity, self-control, sacrifice, study of scriptures, austerity, and straightforwardness..."
Exam significance: Opens the catalogue of daivi sampad (divine endowment) — note it begins with abhaya (fearlessness), the root of all spiritual courage.
Sloka 16.2 — Divine Qualities Continue
अहिंसा सत्यमक्रोधस्त्यागः शान्तिरपैशुनम्।
दया भूतेष्वलोलुप्त्वं मार्दवं ह्रीरचापलम्॥
Meaning: "Non-violence, truth, freedom from anger, renunciation, peace, absence of slander, compassion for beings, non-covetousness, gentleness, modesty, freedom from fickleness..."
Exam significance: The ethical core of daivi sampad — ahimsa, satya, akrodha form the social virtues; examiners often ask students to list any five.
Sloka 16.3 — The Divine List Closes
तेजः क्षमा धृतिः शौचमद्रोहो नातिमानिता।
भवन्ति सम्पदं दैवीमभिजातस्य भारत॥
Meaning: "Vigour, forgiveness, fortitude, purity, freedom from malice, and absence of excessive pride — these belong to one born to the divine endowment, O Bharata."
Exam significance: Completes the 26 qualities of daivi sampad (16.1–3 together); note the balance — tejas (vigour) with kshama (forgiveness): strength without cruelty.
Sloka 16.4 — The Demonic Endowment
दम्भो दर्पोऽभिमानश्च क्रोधः पारुष्यमेव च।
अज्ञानं चाभिजातस्य पार्थ सम्पदमासुरीम्॥
Meaning: "Hypocrisy, arrogance, self-conceit, anger, harshness, and ignorance belong to one born to the demonic endowment, O Partha."
Exam significance: The six marks of asuri sampad — the exact mirror-image of the divine list; comparison of 16.1–3 vs 16.4 is a ready-made exam question.
Sloka 16.5 — The Verdict
दैवी सम्पद्विमोक्षाय निबन्धायासुरी मता।
मा शुचः सम्पदं दैवीमभिजातोऽसि पाण्डव॥
Meaning: "The divine endowment is deemed conducive to liberation, the demonic to bondage. Grieve not, O Pandava — you are born to the divine endowment."
Exam significance: The chapter's conclusion in one verse — daivi → moksha, asuri → bandhana — plus Krishna's personal reassurance to Arjuna, linking the teaching back to the battlefield.
13. The Three Gunas of Food — Chapter XVII, Slokas 8–10
Chapter 17 (Shraddha Traya Vibhaga Yoga) classifies faith — and even food — by the three gunas (sattva, rajas, tamas from Samkhya):
Sloka 17.8 — Sattvic Food
आयुःसत्त्वबलारोग्यसुखप्रीतिविवर्धनाः।
रस्याः स्निग्धाः स्थिरा हृद्या आहाराः सात्त्विकप्रियाः॥
Meaning: "Foods that increase life, purity, strength, health, happiness and delight — juicy, smooth, substantial and agreeable — are dear to the sattvic."
Exam significance: Sattvic food builds both body and mind (note sattva = purity/clarity); the six benefits (ayus, sattva, bala, arogya, sukha, priti) are worth memorizing.
Sloka 17.9 — Rajasic Food
कट्वम्ललवणात्युष्णतीक्ष्णरूक्षविदाहिनः।
आहारा राजसस्येष्टा दुःखशोकामयप्रदाः॥
Meaning: "Foods that are bitter, sour, over-salty, very hot, pungent, dry and burning are dear to the rajasic; they cause pain, grief and disease."
Exam significance: Rajasic food overstimulates — duhkha-shoka-amaya (pain, sorrow, illness) is its triple result; links diet to mental agitation.
Sloka 17.10 — Tamasic Food
यातयामं गतरसं पूति पर्युषितं च यत्।
उच्छिष्टमपि चामेध्यं भोजनं तामसप्रियम्॥
Meaning: "Food that is stale, tasteless, putrid, left over, and impure is dear to the tamasic."
Exam significance: Tamasic food = stale/leftover/impure food, breeding dullness and inertia (tamas); the Gita's teaching that "you are what you eat" — diet shapes consciousness.
Exam Tip: The food verses connect Unit 2's two halves: the three gunas come from Samkhya philosophy (Section 6), and the Gita applies them to daily life. Mentioning this link earns extra marks.
14. Prescribed Slokas — Memorization Table
| Sloka | Opening Words | Theme (one line) |
|---|---|---|
| 2.47 | कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते | Right to action, not to fruits — nishkama karma |
| 2.48 | योगस्थः कुरु कर्माणि | Evenness of mind (samattva) is yoga |
| 2.49 | दूरेण ह्यवरं कर्म | Wisdom-guided action superior; fruit-seekers are "miserly" |
| 2.50 | बुद्धियुक्तो जहातीह | Yoga is excellence in action (योगः कर्मसु कौशलम्) |
| 2.70 | आपूर्यमाणमचलप्रतिष्ठं | Ocean simile — the sthitaprajna undisturbed by desires |
| 4.34 | तद्विद्धि प्रणिपातेन | Learn by humility, inquiry and service to the guru |
| 6.16 | नात्यश्नतस्तु योगोऽस्ति | No yoga for over-eaters, starvers, over-sleepers |
| 6.17 | युक्ताहारविहारस्य | Balanced life makes yoga the destroyer of sorrow (दुःखहा) |
| 16.1 | अभयं सत्त्वसंशुद्धिः | Daivi sampad begins — fearlessness first |
| 16.2 | अहिंसा सत्यमक्रोधः | Daivi sampad — ahimsa, satya, akrodha... |
| 16.3 | तेजः क्षमा धृतिः | Daivi sampad closes — vigour with forgiveness |
| 16.4 | दम्भो दर्पोऽभिमानश्च | Asuri sampad — hypocrisy, arrogance, anger... |
| 16.5 | दैवी सम्पद्विमोक्षाय | Daivi → liberation, asuri → bondage |
| 17.8 | आयुःसत्त्वबलारोग्य | Sattvic food — builds life, strength, clarity |
| 17.9 | कट्वम्ललवणात्युष्ण | Rajasic food — causes pain, grief, disease |
| 17.10 | यातयामं गतरसं | Tamasic food — stale, leftover, impure |
Memorization Strategy: Learn each sloka in three layers: (1) chapter–verse number, (2) first two words (प्रतिपद), (3) the one-line theme. In the exam, write the Devanagari verse + number + one-line meaning — that alone secures full marks on sloka questions.
Key Points — Unit 2
- Veda = sacred knowledge; shruti (revealed) vs smriti (remembered); composed c. 1500–500 BCE in Vedic Sanskrit.
- Four Vedas: Rigveda (oldest, 1028 suktas, 10 mandalas, Gayatri mantra), Samaveda (music), Yajurveda (ritual prose — Shukla/Krishna), Atharvaveda (daily life, medicine).
- Priest–Veda pairs: Hotri–Rig, Udgatri–Sama, Adhvaryu–Yajur, Brahma–Atharva.
- Four layers of each Veda: Samhita (mantras) → Brahmana (ritual commentary) → Aranyaka (symbolic) → Upanishad (philosophy/Vedanta).
- Six Vedangas: Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual — Sutras), Vyakaran (grammar — Panini), Nirukta (etymology — Yaska), Chandas (meter — Pingala), Jyotisha (astronomy — Lagadha).
- Vedic life: yajna at the centre; rta (cosmic order) → dharma; varna (Purusha Sukta 10.90) + ashrama; Sabha and Samiti assemblies; gurukul education; honoured women (Gargi, Maitreyi, Lopamudra).
- Six astika darshanas: Nyaya (Gautama — logic), Vaisheshika (Kanada — atomism), Samkhya (Kapila — 25 tattvas, 3 gunas), Yoga (Patanjali — ashtanga), Mimamsa (Jaimini — ritual), Vedanta (Badarayana — Brahman/Atman; Shankara, Ramanuja, Madhva).
- Three nastika schools: Buddhism (Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path), Jainism (Triratna, ahimsa, anekantavada), Charvaka (materialism, only perception valid).
- Gita: 18 chapters, 700 verses, Kurukshetra dialogue (Krishna–Arjuna); three yogas — karma, bhakti, jnana.
- 2.47: right to action, never to fruits (nishkama karma); 2.48: samattva = yoga; 2.50: योगः कर्मसु कौशलम् (excellence in action).
- 2.70: ocean simile — the sthitaprajna undisturbed by desires attains peace.
- 4.34: learn by humility, inquiry, service (pranipata, pariprashna, seva).
- 6.16–17: neither excess nor starvation; balanced life makes yoga the destroyer of sorrow (दुःखहा).
- 16.1–3: 26 qualities of daivi sampad (fearlessness first); 16.4: 6 marks of asuri sampad; 16.5: daivi → liberation, asuri → bondage.
- 17.8–10: sattvic food builds life and clarity; rajasic causes pain, grief, disease; tamasic is stale/impure — diet shapes consciousness.
